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第五章：Word Meaning
The meanings of‘Meaning’ 指的是哪三个层次的内容?
意义中的含义的三个层次的划分:
What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?
1) Reference (有reference 的词必然具有sense, 也必然具有Concept )
2) Concept( 能够形成Concept 的词必然有reference )
3) Sense (有sense 的词未必具有concept , 也未必具有reference)
(Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs, 它们都是具有sense 的词,但是未必具有reference , 也未必具有concept, 例如：if, but, probably : 它们有sense, 但没有concept )
What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?（等同于：What is relationship between sound and form ）
答: Arbitrary and conventional
名词解释: reference
名词Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .
They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.
2. Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .
3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on.
4. a concept can have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.
重点: sense 的名词解释：
Sense : 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’
2. Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.
*3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)
重点：What are the type of motivation？
1) Onomatopoeic motivation
2) Morphological Motivation
3) Semantic Motivation
4) Etymological Motivation
填空:
1.some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either new in meaning or new in sense, this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
2. Compounds are totally different in the meaning before it was carried out with different elements, so the meaning of a compound can not be deduced from component constituted this compound ,this motivation is called ( morphological motivation )
3. pen in old English , refers to the feather, but with the development of technology, fountain was invented , but the name of this material was kept up to this day, people still used the pen to refer to writting tool, this motivation is called (etymological motivation)
4. Conceptual meaning also know as (denotative meaning )
4.laconic answer (简短回答),
laconic 的形成是属于哪一种理据 (etymological motivation)
问题: pingpong ball , cuckoo 是靠哪一种理据形成的新词?
答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation
问题:at the foot of mountain, the mouth of river, 此时采用了哪一种理据构成?
答案: Semantic movtivation
论述题: 1. What are the types of motivation?
2. What are the types of meaning?
按大的分支来分分为: (1)grammatical meaning (2)Lexical meaning
分析题:*’The dog is chasing a cat’, analyze the sentence based on grammatical meaning.
Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning.
(语法意义上分析没考过, 但从词汇意义上分析考过)
语法意义指一个词的词性, 句中充当的成份, 句子的时态,单复数形式等.
1)’Dog, cat’ are nouns, and ’chase’ is transitive verb.
2) The sentence is used in present continuous tense.
3) ’The dog, a cat’ are singular form.
问题:The pen is mightier than sword? 请 从语法意义的角度上分析这句话?
Both ’pen and sword’ are nouns.
’mightier’ is an adjective, and ’than’ is preposition.
The sentence is in simple present tense.
这是现在时中采用的哪一种语法结构?
’Mightier than’ is comparative degree.
’pen and sword’ are in singular form.
’The pen’ is subject, and ’sword’ functions as an object to preposition ’than’.
’mightier’ is predictive.
重点名词解释:
Conceptual meaning:
1) Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.
2) Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communiation as the same word has the same conceptual meaing to all the speakers of the same language.
*Associative meaning :(一定要把它的四种分支答上)
1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.
2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminated.
3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion, geographical region, class background,education, etc.
4)Associative meaning comprises four types : connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.
问题: Connotative meaning is not the same to everybody, every situation and every time, analyze the statement?
答案: e.g. A child is prejudiced against, often jeered at, beaten or scolded at home, then home to his is nothing but ’ a hell’, hence unfavourable connotatitions,
问题: 某些贬义词是不是任何时候都是贬义词？
答案：e.g. A phrase like ’son of a bitch’ which normally has an associative meaning of crude vulgarity may convey the connotation of ’friendliness’ and ’intimacy’ used between two close friends when they meet after some prolonged period of time.
问题:Stylistic meaning 根据字典上的划分有几种划分?根据The Five Clocks 划分,有几种划分?
答案:In some dictionaries, stylistic features are clearly marked as ’formal’, ’informal’, ’literary’, ’archaic’, slang’.
Martin Joos in his book The Five Clocks suggests five degrees of formality: ’frozen’, ’formal’, ’consultative’, ’casual’ and ’intimate’.
问题:在日常生活中,人们把文体只简单地划分为哪三类?
答案:1)formal 2)neutral 3) informal
注意:要把书中89页中例子[22][23]分析要记好.
在情感意义affective meaning, 考试往往要落脚在affective meaning 的两个分类:(年年affective meaning 例子都考)
(1) appreciative meaning
(2) pejorative meaning
Collocative meaning 中的例子要记好: pretty , handsome
Green 搭配的例子记好: green on the job, green fruit , green with envy , green-eyed monster.
复习:
问题: Blackmail 从发音的角度被划分成什么词,从理据的角度被划分成什么词?
答案:Complex
Morphological motivation
问题: 有 reference 的词必然具有sense and concept ( 正确)
有sense 的词一定具有reference.(错误)
The word which have meaning does not have necessarily reference.
问题: ’Forget, forgot, forgetting , forgotten , forgets’这是从哪一个角度来界定这个词的分支?
答案: Grammatical meaning
问题: ‘frozen, ‘formal’ , ‘consultative’, ‘casual’ and ‘intimate’ 这五个词是总结了什么的划分， 是根据什么的划分?
答案: stylistic meaning , 是根据The Five Clocks written by Martin Joos.
问题:But in daily life , we always refer to (formal), (neutral) , (informal).
问题: ’Pretty boy, pretty woman , pretty garden, pretty garden , pretty car’，请解释这些词的意义一样不一样？如果不一样请加以理论分析？
答案:Collocative meaning, when pretty is used to modify different nouns both animate and inanimate , their collocative meaning are totally different.
问题：Table tennis can be replaced by pingpong ball and the name of the bird is also called cuckoo , which can also be reused to refer to the sound of the bird , so their two words are (onomatopoeically) motivated.
问题：’Unexpected, expectation, expecting’, these three words are (morphologically) motivated.
问题： ’Hopeless, jobless, dislike’, 这三个词是靠什么motivated. ( morphologically motivated)
问题：’East or west , home is best’ and ’there is no place like home’. 这两话是使用了什么样的意义构成的？
答案: Connotative meaning
第六章: Sense Relations and Semantic Field
polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
Two Approaches to Polysemy:
1) Diachronic approach
2) Sychronic approach
Two Processes of Development
1) radiation
(1) radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes.
(2) the meaning are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning.
e.g. face, neck
2) concatenation
(1) meaning ‘ linking together’, is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until, in may cases ,there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning .
(2) In plain terms the meaning reached by the first shift may be shifted a second time, and so on until in the end the original meaning is totally lost.
e.g. treacle
注意： 这两种模式的名词解释照样要记（这两种模式只在填空，选择，出过题，还没有以名词解释形式考过）
问题：In the linguistic study, what are the sense relations and what are the types of sense relations ?
答案: A word which is related to the other words is related to them in sense, so it is called sense semantic relations.
types of sense relations : polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy.（五种关系的名词解释要记住）
问题：Fruit 与 apples bananas, pineapples, lychees 是什么语义关系？
答案：Hyponymy?
问题：Fruit 这一类里包含apples, bananas, pineapples, grapes 它们形成了一种什么样的理论？
答案： Semantic field
问题：有的时候在英语中存在着一种语言不共容的现象，那就是反义词的不共容的现象， 那么这种不能够相互溶合，这样的词在反义词当中被称作什么词。
比如说：dead , alive , 它们之间的反义关系是什么样的一种关系？
答案：Contradictory terms
它们之间形成的语义关系被称作antonymy
问题：Contradictory terms 有一个最大的特点是什么？
答案：Mutually exclusive and are non-gradable, They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualify them.
问题：反义词存在不存在一种包容现象？
答案：表明two poles, two extremes，的反义词，它们之间存在一种包容现象，这种包容现象被称作（Middle ground）
e.g. huge / tiny（ 它们之间存在着big , small , quite big, quite small）
e.g. young / old
这类反义词被称为(Contrary terms)
问题：fast 这个词, 它表示紧的概念时, 它 和loose 是一组反义词，表示快的概念 时，它和slow 是一组反义词， 这样的 一种语义关系算什么样的语义关系？
答案： polysemy
问题：分析deer , dear 这两个词是什么样的词？
答案：Homophone
重点: homonyms 有哪三个类别的划分？
1) perfect homonyms
e.g. bank , bear
2) homographs
e.g. bow, sow
3) homophones
e.g dear, deer
right, write, rite
重点：Origins of Homonyms
1) Change in sound and spelling
2) Borrowing
3) Shortening
问题：shortening 可以表现在哪些分支结构构成上?
1) Acronymy 2) Homonymy 3) Narrowing 4) Idioms
重点问题：Homonymy 和 Polysemy 的区别？
（ 未考过）
6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms
e.g. Long time no sea. ( puns )
humor, sarcasm or ridicule
重点：名词解释 Synonyms
Types of Synonyms :
1) Absolute synonyms
2) Relative synonyms
重要简答题：Sources of Synonyms ( 四大来源， 配以例子说明就可以了)
1) Borrowing
2)Dialects and regional English
3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words
4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
重点：如何区分同义词？(Discrimination of Synonyms )
1) Difference in denotation
2) Difference in connotation
3) Difference in application
antonymy : 反义关系
要点:反义词的三种类别的划分:
What are the different types of antonyms?
三种类别的名词解释都要记:
1) Contradictory terms
exclusive
特例: they cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like very to qualifythem.
e.g. single/ married (有可能放在分析里去论述)
2) contrary terms
关键词: two poles or extremes
middle ground
e.g. rich / poor (中间还可出现well-to-do)
3) Relative terms
e.g. parent / child , predecessor/ successor
问题: What are the characteristics of antonyms?
1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition
特例:Many words, though having synonyms, do not find their semantic opposites, e.g. read, hit, house, book, power, magazine. Therefore, in a language, there are a great many more synonyms than antonyms.
2) A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
(这个特点只适用于polysemous )
e.g. fast , dull
3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
(这里讲的包容性是指一个反义词必然包 含着另外一个反义词的绝对的概念)
e.g.man/ woman (man 除了指男性,还可以指整个人类, woman 算作人类的一 部分, 所以woman 也算在man 的范畴内,因此,woman 被man 所包容)
dog / bitch ( dog 除了指狗类通称,还可以指公狗, bitch是母狗, dog指狗类通称的时,bitch是狗的一种,因此我们说bitch必然被dog所包容,所以,它们之间存在着Semantic inclusion)
(语义上的包容性还没有考过)
e.g. tall/short, old /young
4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
(特例)Some words can have two different types of antonyms at the same time, one being the negative and the other opposite,(未考过, 重要的选择或填空内容)
e.g. happy / unhappy/ sad ( happy/ unhappy 之间的反义关系是negative, happy/sad 之间的关系是opposite )
The use of Antonyms (通常用在习语当中)
e.g. rain or sine
high and low
easy come, easy go
名词解释:Hyponymy (未考过,很重要的概念)
Hyponymy : 1) hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
2)That is to say, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
3) These specific words are known as hyponyms. The general words are the superordinate terms and the more specific ones are subordinate terms.
注意:hyponyms 和 subordinate 都是指下义词.
比如说:考试给你hammer, saw, spanner这些词, 然后再给你tool这个词, 然后让你用语义关系的理论加以分析这组词?
分析: hammer, saw , spanner 都是specific word, 它们和tool 存在的关系是semantic inclusion , 所以tool 是一个superordinate , hammer, saw, spanner 属于subordinate 或者是hyponyms.
(用上下义语义关系进行理论分析的题,也是一个考试的要点)
hyponymy ( 它与语义场semantic field具有一定的联系)
注意: 上义词与下义词不是一成不变的, 也不是绝对的, 是一个相对的概念,不同的语义场就存在不同的上下义关系.
重点:Semantic Field (名词解释) (未考过)
Semantic Field: 1)The massive word store a language like English can be conceived of as composed around a number of meaning areas, some large, and others smaller. Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.
2) The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary as ‘an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense. Therefore, the ‘words of languages can be classified into semantically related sets or fields.
3) According to Trier’s vision of fields, the whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields.
4)Words in each field are semantically related and define one another.
注意:答语义场的简答题与它的名词解释相同.
复习第六章:
问题:在反义关系中, 同一个词具有不同的涵义, 因此也就具有了多个不同的反义词 ( true or false )
问题: true
e.g. fast, dull
问题: 反义词分为哪三类:
1) Contradictory terms
2) Contrary terms
3) Relative terms
问题:可以用形容词比较级, 可以用程度副词 加以修饰的反义词是属于哪一类?
答案: Contradictory terms
问题: 可以接纳一个Middle ground, 这样的词是属于哪一类反义词?
答案:contrary terms
问题: Husband and wife , man and woman 这都是表示性别的反义词,但是他们属于同一类反义词的划分, 对还是错?
答: 错
husband and wife : relative terms
man and woman : contradictory terms
问题: empty 与 vacant 这两个词都表示空荡荡的感觉, empty表示的是修饰容积,容量, 没有填充物的空荡荡, 而vacant 表示的是一个not occupied, not taken 所以一般我们说没有放家具的房间叫做vacant apartment, 而人去楼空的房间叫empty room, 请从同义词的角度对这种用法加以分析? (书111 页)
答案:
Differnece in application :
Empty, vacant are synonyms, but their collocations are not the same.
Empty implies that there is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests that something or some place is not occupied.
问题: 反义词之间存在不存在包容性概念semantic inclusion, 请举例说明?
答案: e.g. man / woman , dog/ bitch
tall/ short, old /young
问题:Face 具有不同的它有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings ,那么,这种基本语义和派生语义体现在face的身上, 是用哪一种方法论研究得出来的结果?
答案: diachronic approach
像车轮式一样进行发展的语义属于哪一种模式? 举例说明?
答案: radiation
e.g. face, neck
问题:harvest 它的意思是time of cutting, time of harvest, 现在是指yield of grain or food 是哪一种方法论得出的.
答案: diachronic approach
问题:huge/tiny, 这是一组反义词, 请从反义关系的角度来分析这是哪一种类型的反义词,并加以理论的解释?
答案:contrary terms
Antonyms of this kind form part of a scale of values between two poles and can accommodate a middle ground belong neither to one pole nor to the other as shown below:
huge/very big/big/quite big / medium-sized/ quite small/small/ tiny
( 这种分析题目易考)
看例子: desk, table, chair, cupboard , 这些词都算在什么范畴之内, 加以理论分析?
答案:
这些词都属于furnature, furnature 是superordinate, desk , table ... 是furniture 的subordinate words 或者称作hyponyms ,它们之间形成的relationship is called hyponymy.
第七章: Changes in Word Meaning
两个大的部分:
1. Types of Semantic changes (五种)
(1)extension
extension 又被称作generalization
e.g ’manuscript’ original meaning ’ handwritting---now ’any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer
"barn" original meaning ’ a place for stroing only barely’---now ’storeroom’
(2)narrowing
narrowing 又被称作specialization
e.g. "deer" animal---now just ’deer’
"corn" grain---now ’maize’only
’garage’ any safe place---’ a place for storing cars’
(3) degradation
degradation 又被称作pejoration
e.g. "boor" peasant---now a rude, ill-mannered person
"churl"peasant or free man---uncultivated or mean person
"hussy" housewife---a woman of low moral
"villain" a person who worked in a villa---evil person or scoundrel
(4) elevation
elevation 又被称作 ameliration
e.g. "nice" ignorance---foolish---now elevated to ’delight, pleasant’
"marshal" keeper of horses---now means ’high-ranking army officer’
"constable" keeper of horses---now means ’policeman’
(5) transfer
e.g. paper ( p140)
the lip of a wound ( associated transfer)
purse for ’money’ (associated transfer )
clear-sounding ( transfer of sensations )
2.Causes of Changes :
1)extra linguistic factors
(1) historical reason
a word is retained for a name thogh the meaning has changed because the referent has changed.
e.g. " pen" feather in the past ---pen, ball-pens, fountains pens
increased scientific knowledge and discovery are also important factors.
(2) class reason
elevation and degradation
(3) Psychological reason
The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words
Religious influence is another kind of psychological need.
e.g. "copperhead" on p.143
2)linguistic factors
The change of meaning may be caused by internal factors within the language system.
Especially when a phrase is shortened to one word which retains the meaning of the whole.
The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
The competition of native words eventually resulted in the semantic division.
语义扩大的三个特例:1)polysemic words of modern English
2)technical terms
3)from proper nouns to common words
问题:由普通变成专有名词算哪一类词类变化模式?
答案: Narrowing
问题: 词义缩小有几个特例?
答案:有三个特例
1) From common words to proper nouns
e.g. city ---> the City
pennisular --->the Pennisular
profit --->the Profit
2) shortening
3) material nouns
问题: 以下的词的词义的变化由什么模式造成的:
1)lust 最早是指人的一种pleasure快乐,现在是指sexual pleasure, 这种词义变化属于哪一种模式?
答案: degradation.
2)Editorial article 缩写为editorial 这是属于哪一种词义变化的模式?
答案: Narrowing
3) the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚半岛,那么这个词的形成是属于哪一种模式?
答案:Narrowing , 因为它是由common words 变成了proper nouns ,
4) Sandwitch , 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品,这种词义的变化属于哪一种
答案：Extension
5)问题:多义词具有了不同的语义, 这种词义变化模式属于哪一类?
答案：Extension
6) 问题:liquor 最早是指所有液体的通称, 现在专门指alcoholic drinking , 这种词义的变化算哪一种模式?
答案：Narrowing or specialization
7) car 最早是指马拉的战车, 但是现在就是指小轿车,那么这种词义的变化算是哪一个原因造成的?
答案：Extra linguistic factor中的historical reason
8) computer 最早是指人的手工劳动的计算,后来是指占地面积非常大的计算机,现在的计算机就是指micro computer ,那么computer 词义的变化算哪一个原因造成的?
答案： Extra linguistic fator 中的historical reason ,
9) 这时的computer 指代的是哪一种模式?或者是说哪一种理据的构成?
答案：Etymological motivation
10)在南北战争时期, 南方的人一见到北方的人就胆战心惊,所以把北方的人比作rattle snake ,那么南方人的 这种用词,它是哪一种原因造成的?
答案：Extralinguistic factor中的psychological reason.
11) 问题:最早的纸是来自非洲的一种做纸的植物叫papyrus, 后来就用paper这个词指代所有的纸张,尽管造纸 的技术和原料变了, 但是paper 这个名词却被保留了下来, 这算词义变化的哪一种模式?
答案:transfer (书140页)
12) 问题: Extention 又被称作什么,哪一种词类的变化最能说明这个原因?
答案: generalization, from proper nouns to common nouns.
13) 问题:Narrowing 最能表现词义缩小的是哪一类?
答案: From common nouns to proper nouns
习题练习:
1)A concept is universal to all men regardless of____
A) culture B) race C) language D) all of the above
答案:D
2)问题: Mouth 在 the mouth of river这个习语 , 它采用了哪一种motivated ?
答案: semantically motivated
3)问题: Radiation and concatenation are different stages of development leading to polysemy , generally , radiation 和concatenation 哪一个出现的早?
答案: radiation proceeds concatenation
4)问题:Of the most words meaning changes , which are most productive , which are most common?
答案:Extension and narrowing
5) 问题: wife 由最早是指所有的woman 变为了married woman , 这是属于哪一种?
答案：Narrowing
6) 问题: Angel 由最早的messenger 变成了messenger by god , 是哪一个词义变化模式?
答案: Elvervation
7) 问题: silly 它现在的词义是foolish, 它是哪一种语义的变化模式?
答案: Degradation
8)问题: cukoo, 它既指布谷鸟的声音,也可以指布谷鸟, 它是哪种理据构成的词?
答案: Onomatopoeic Motivation
9)问题: Italian , 它是哪一个语系分支当中的哪一个语族?
答案: Indo-European language family
Western set
Italic
10)问题: Greek 属于哪一个语系当中的哪一个小的语系当中的哪一个语族?
答案: Indo-European language family
Western set
Hellenic
11)问题: fair and square, 这属于Idioms中的哪一个类别?
答案： Phonetic manipulation 中的 Rhyme
问题：What are the characteristics of antonyms?
答案：有四个：
1) Semantic opposition
2) A word which ahs more than one meaning can have more than one antonym.
3) Semantic inclusion
4) Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
问题： "The chicken is ready to eat", 请你从语境的角度来分析？
答案：This is wrong sentence, because
it has two problems : 1)Ambiguity 2)Indication of reference
According to two functions of Context
1) Elimination of ambiguity
2) Indication of Reference
This sentence can be corrected as follows :
1)what a nice smell, the chicken is ready to eat.
2) The chicken is hungery, so the chicken needs foods.
选择题：
A concept has referring expressions ____.
A) one B) many C)a few D) none of the above.
答案：B
The grammatical meanings of a word refer to the part of the meaning of a word which indicate grammatical concept or relationship, such as ____ .
A) part of speech of a word B)Singular and plural forms C) tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms D) All of the above.
答案： D)
问题：pick and choose , 它算习语中的哪一个类别？
答案：reiteration （同义词叠用）
问题：rain or shine ， 它算习语中的哪一类
答案：Juxtaposition (反义词叠用)
kith and kin
alliteration
might and main
alliteration
cooked 这是哪一种, 请从词缀的角度来加以区别cooked
inflectional affixation
employer
derivational affixes
名词解释：connotative meaning : is also known as connnotation
What are the differences between hymonyms and polysemyms ?
face 是多义词 , ball 不是
论述题： I met a write rwho is the relation of a politician.
I met a newspaper reporter who is the brother of Senator Buckley.
以上这两句话哪一话好，好在哪里？(p119)
注意：答这个论述题时先说哪句好，然后加以分析，最后要答上下义关系hyponymy 的名词解释。
Chapter 8 meaning and Context
要记两个重要部分:
1 Context 如何进行分类
两种: 1) Linguistic context
In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word
appears. This is known as linguistic context which may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.
2) Extra-linguistic context
or non-linguistic context
IN a broad sense, it includes the physical situation as well. This is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background.
Context 这两个分类也就是它的名词解释
1)Linguistic context
Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context
Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. The
meaning of the word is offten affected and defined by the neighbouring words.
Grammatical context In some cases, the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. This is what we call grammatical context.
重点:简答题: What is linguistic context?(这道简答题没考过, 但是整个context 考过)
重点:The role of Context 语境的作用?
三个作用: 1) Elimination of Ambiguity
Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy
2) Indication of Referents
Without clear context, the reference can be very confusing.
3) Provision of Clues for Inferring Wordmeaning
在3) 中又包括八种线索:
(1) Definition
(2) Explanation
(3) Example
(4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy
(6) Hyponymy
(7) Relevant details
(8) Word structure
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